A Guide to Digital SAT Grammar and Punctuation
The following article is peppered with literary allusions, using the titles of well-known or well-loved classics (notice that these two terms are not mutually exclusive). See if you can find all nineteen!
Table of Contents
Which Choice Completes the Text So That It Conforms to the Conventions of Standard English?
Let’s address the elephant in the room: “Standard English conventions” may seem to be a nebulous term to describe the innumerable rules one must memorize in order to attain a high Reading and Writing score on the digital SAT. However, it may help to examine why we have such rules in the first place. After all, you probably don’t fixate on plugging in all the appropriate commas when composing a text message to a friend, and yet casual conversation is usually understood anyway.
It all comes down to purpose and context. While your friends may be able to decipher the intended meaning of a text message because they know you, the same may not apply for individuals who are not familiar with your way of communication. This, essentially, is why we have such conventions: mastering the rules of grammar and punctuation empowers you to maintain control over your message, whether you are crafting an application essay, a resume, or an email to a peer. Failure to understand the basic rules of grammar and punctuation may lead to some hard times Literary Reference #1: Hard Times
by Charles Dickens ahead when you are trying to communicate a message that comes across as polished and professional.
In short, Standard English conventions exist to ensure that your message is understood in precisely the way that you intend.
To illustrate, let’s compare two versions of the same sentence:
Version 1
After being on the road Literary Reference #2: On the Road
by Jack Kerouac for hours Clarissa Literary Reference #3: Clarissa
by Samuel Richardson realized that she did not know where she was confounded by the maze of winding roads and obscure signposts.
Version 2
After being on the road Literary Reference #2: On the Road
by Jack Kerouac for hours, Clarissa Literary Reference #3: Clarissa
by Samuel Richardson realized that she did not know where she was, confounded by the maze of winding roads and obscure signposts
Without punctuation separating the main clause from the other elements in the sentence, Version 1 is a lot more difficult to decipher. Inserting a comma after the introductory modifying phrase (“After…hours”) and another before the participial phrase (“confounded…signposts”) is crucial for providing the necessary clarity to help the reader understand the action of the sentence.
Now let’s look at another variation:
Version 3
After being on the road Literary Reference #2: On the Road
by Jack Kerouac for hours, the maze of winding roads and obscure signposts confounded Clarissa, Literary Reference #3: Clarissa
by Samuel Richardson as she realized that she did not know where she was.
Even with punctuation, this sentence is confusing. Notice how placing the noun phrase “the maze of winding roads and obscure signposts” right after the introductory phrase “After…hours” creates ambiguity, because placement matters. The syntax of a sentence—also known as its structure—is one of the key components of grammar. While punctuation refers to the symbols that are used to separate and combine ideas, grammar refers to the words and how they function within a sentence.
Therefore, when talking about Standard English conventions, we are talking about the rules that include both punctuation and grammar. Without a solid grasp on both, language becomes unclear, ineffective. So it’s important to regard these conventions not merely as a set of rules to memorize, but rather as guidelines to shape your writing in ways that best fit your purpose.
On the digital SAT, punctuation conventions are within the “Boundaries” realm, while grammar conventions are within the “Form, Structure, and Sense” realm. Both will appear towards the second half of the Reading and Writing modules and are intermixed—that is, you may see a question that tests for verb forms (Form, Structure, and Sense), while the next question tests for end-of-sentence punctuation (Boundaries).
You can view the exact breakdown of Reading and Writing content domains and testing points on College Board’s website.
Punctuation on the Digital SAT: Boundaries
Let's Set Some Boundaries
As it happens, “boundaries” do not just refer to the limitations you establish within interpersonal relationships—they can also refer to the relationship between words. While this may not sound as exciting, do not be fooled! Without setting boundaries within a sentence, things fall apart Literary Reference #4: Things Fall Apart
by Chinua Achebe.
After all, what is the purpose of punctuation? As we’ve seen in the earlier example, we rely on punctuation to clarify our meaning. The very symbols that dot our pages—commas, periods, semicolons, colons, and dashes—do not exist for arbitrary reasons, but rather to make our written communication more effective and less ambiguous.
With that in mind, College Board tests your ability to connect phrases and clauses by having you determine if or where punctuation should appear within specific parts of a sentence. This can be broken down into a number of punctuation conventions that may make an appearance on the digital SAT, and we’ll go over some of them here.
But first, in order to explain these rules, let’s take a step back and consider what makes a sentence “complete.”
A complete sentence must include two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is a noun that performs the action of the main verb in the sentence—it tells us who or what the sentence is about. The predicate, on the other hand, includes the main verb and any other information pertaining to the subject.
To truly understand where clauses should begin and end (thereby knowing if punctuation is required), you must have a solid grasp on this concept. The easier it is for you to identify parts of a sentence, the easier time you will have with understanding punctuation rules.
When you are faced with a Boundaries question, you can expect to see a few sentences with a tactical blank placed at a crucial junction between clauses. You will then see four answer choices, usually distinguished by different punctuation marks, and in some cases, a coordinating conjunction. For many Boundaries questions, you can rule out “distractor” answer choices by identifying if a certain punctuation mark (or lack thereof) results in a comma splice or run-on error.
To illustrate the point, the following is an example from College Board’s nonadaptive SAT practice test #3.
Archaeologist Laila Nehmé recently traveled to Hegra to study its ancient _______ into the rocky outcrops of a vast desert, these burial chambers seem to blend seamlessly with nature.
Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A) tombs. Built
B) tombs, built
C) tombs and built
D) tombs built
For the passage above, we can either have two sentences or just one long sentence, depending on what answer choice we choose. To decide the best way to punctuate this passage, we should start by identifying where there are independent clauses.
Consider the following: “Archeologist Laila Nehmé recently traveled to Hegra to study its ancient tombs.” Is this a complete sentence? We can check by determining the subject and predicate:
Subject: Laila Nehmé. We know this sentence is about Laila Nehmé because she is the one performing the action.
Main verb (part of the predicate): traveled. We know that Laila Nehmé traveled. Following “traveled” we have the rest of the predicate, which includes the prepositional phrase “to Hegra” and the infinitive phrase “to study its ancient tombs.” Both of these phrases modify the subject “Laila Nehmé”—they clarify where Nehme traveled and why. Because these phrases modify the subject/action of the subject, they belong with this sentence.
Now that we have determined that the first part is a complete sentence, we can recognize that a period would be an appropriate punctuation mark after “tombs.”
Next, we can move on to the other part of the passage (if we are still looking at Choice A): “Built into the rocky outcrops of a vast desert, these burial chambers seem to blend seamlessly in nature.”
Whenever you see punctuation already inserted into the passage, pay attention—they offer valuable clues to determine how the passage should be divided. With the comma above, we can determine that we have a participial phrase (“Built into the rocky outcrops of a vast desert”) that is modifying the second subject of the passage, “burial chambers.” After the subject, we also have the verb “seem,” which is followed by the infinitive phrase “to blend seamlessly in nature.” Since we have both a subject and a verb, we can determine that we have another complete sentence. Therefore, a period between “tombs” and “built” is correct.
Let’s briefly consider the other choices, because no matter how sure you think you are, it’s good practice to review all your options:
Choice B: tombs, built
The Offense: comma splice
Why? Two independent clauses are connected with only a comma. That’s a punctuation no-no.
Choice C: tombs and built
The Offense: incorrect use of coordinating conjunction
Why? While “and” can connect two independent clauses, it requires a comma as well to separate clause 1 from clause 2 (side note: even if you did add a comma, this is not a great example of clear writing. Notice how sentence 1 is focused on Laila Nehmé while sentence 2 is focused on the burial chambers. Separate thoughts should be separated—who would have thought?)
Choice D: tombs built
The Offense: run-on sentence
Why? Two independent clauses are connected without appropriate punctuation. Read these two sentences together without any punctuation—it becomes a lot more difficult to understand.
Therefore, Choice A is the best answer.
The example we just discussed illustrates how to approach an end-of-sentence punctuation question. This approach can be extended to navigate other Boundaries questions as well. While the following rules don’t encompass all punctuation conventions that might be tested on the digital SAT, they should provide you with a solid understanding of what you can expect.
Commas
Rule: use a comma when a coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses.
Example: As the mysterious events unfolded on the haunted estate, guests vanished one by one, and then there were none Literary Reference #5: And Then There Were None
by Agatha Christie remaining to solve the enigma.
“As the mysterious events unfolded on the haunted estate, guests vanished one by one” is a complete sentence, and so is “there were none remaining to solve the enigma.” Since these two independent clauses are joined by “and,” you should use a comma before it to indicate the relationship between the two clauses. This comma helps clarify that the two ideas are separate but related.
Rule: when a participial phrase is at the end of a sentence and separated from the word it modifies, it needs to be separated from the main clause with a comma.
Example: Standing in the doorway of her dorm room, the college student surveyed her windowless and cramped quarters, longing for a room with a view. Literary Reference #6:
A Room With a View
by E. M. Forster
The participial phrase “longing for a room with a view” modifies the subject “student.” Because the participial phrase is not right next to its subject, a comma is required (otherwise, it sounds like the “cramped quarters” are longing).
Rule: separate a subordinate clause from the main clause with a comma.
Example: While she skillfully employed the art of persuasion, Literary Reference #7: Persuasion
by Jane Austen her argument nevertheless failed to sway the skeptical audience.
In this sentence, the clause “While she skillfully employed the art of persuasion” cannot stand on its own—this is because of the subordinating conjunction “while.” This clause depends on the independent clause “her argument nevertheless failed to sway the skeptical audience” in order to make sense. In this sentence, a comma is placed after “persuasion” in order to signal the transition from the dependent clause to the independent clause.
As a reminder, a subordinate clause, also known as a dependent clause, is a group of words that has both a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. It needs to be attached to an independent clause to form a complete sentence. To spot them, be on the lookout for subordinating conjunctions, such as “because,” “although,” “if,” “when,” “while,” and “since.”
Did you know? “Subordinate” is an adjective that describes a lower rank or position. Just as a subordinate officer doesn’t carry the same weight as a higher-ranking officer, a subordinate clause doesn’t carry the same weight as an independent clause.
Rule: nonessential elements should be separated from the rest of the sentence with commas (dashes and parentheses can be used in this way as well). Specifically:
- If the nonessential element is at the beginning of the sentence: a comma must follow it
- If the nonessential element is in the middle of a sentence: it must be preceded by a comma and end with one
- If the nonessential element is at the end of the sentence: it must be preceded by a comma
Example: The woman, anxious to get her morning coffee, asked the strangerLiterary Reference #8: The Stranger
by Albert Camus on the park bench for directions to the nearest cafe.
In this sentence, the phrase “anxious to get her morning coffee” is not needed in order to understand the sentence. Without this phrase, we can still understand that a woman spoke to a stranger to get directions to a cafe. Because this phrase is in the middle of a sentence, it is framed by a pair of commas.
If you can remove the word(s) from the sentence and it still makes sense, then it is considered a nonessential element—it’s not important to have in order to understand the sentence. While nonessential elements may not be required to understand the sentence, they do add extra details or background information that can make a sentence more interesting. Think of nonessential elements as a “nice to have,” not a “need to have” part of the sentence. When the inverse is true—when the information is vital to the sentence’s meaning—then commas are not used (see “When Punctuation Isn’t Needed” for more details).
In short, commas are used to set off nonessential information to show that it can be removed without altering the fundamental meaning of the sentence. Essential information is not set off by commas because it is necessary for understanding the main message of the sentence.
Semicolons
Rule: a semicolon can be used to connect two independent clauses. A semicolon cannot, however, connect an independent clause to a dependent clause.
Example: The project required a significant investment of time, but the tight deadline meant the team couldn’t afford to delay any further; it was a catch-22.Literary Reference #9: Catch-22
by Joseph Heller
Notice how the clauses (“The project…further” and “it…catch-22”) are closely related. You wouldn’t want to connect two independent clauses with a semicolon if they address different subjects—in that case, use a period.
Rule: use a semicolon to separate items in a list when the items are complex and already contain commas. This is often referred to as a “super comma” because the semicolon saves the day when a comma just isn’t cutting it.
Example: The motley adventuring party in the game included Wysteria, the spell-casting witch; Alec, the alchemist;Literary Reference #10: The Alchemist
by Paulo Coelho and Percival, the potions master.
The semicolon helps to clarify the separation between items. If we replaced the semicolons with commas, the sentence would become a lot more confusing.
Colons
Rule: a colon can be used to introduce information or add clarity to a previous point. Unlike a semicolon, the information following the colon does not have to be an independent clause. As little as a single word can follow a colon.
Example: After frantically flipping through old journal pages, the man finally stumbled upon the entry that confirmed the year he went on a trip that would forever change his life: 1984.Literary Reference #11: 1984
by George Orwell
Sometimes, it’s not as obvious when a colon is needed. Consider the following example from College Board’s nonadaptive practice SAT test #4:
A study published by Rice University geoscientist Ming Tang in 2019 offers a new explanation for the origin of Earth’s _______ structures called arcs, towering ridges that form when a dense oceanic plate subducts under a less dense continental plate, melts in the mantle below, and then rises and bursts through the continental crust above.
Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A) continents geological
B) continents: geological
C) continents; geological
D) continents. Geological
In this example, a period and semicolon can both be ruled out because the punctuation is not connecting two independent clauses. Choice A, the option without any punctuation, can also be ruled out because there should be some kind of separation between the main clause (“A study…continents”) and the supplementary phrase (“geological…above”).
This leaves us with Choice B, which uses a colon to indicate that the supplementary phrase “geological…above” is providing a “new explanation” for the origin of the Earth’s continents. Colons can be used in this way to indicate that an explanation or further clarification will follow.
But how do we know that the part “geological…above” is merely a phrase, not an independent clause? Do not be fooled by the length—if we break down everything following the colon, we can determine that:
- “geological structures called arcs” is a noun phrase that clarifies what the “new explanation” is
- “towering ridges” is another noun phrase that functions to describe the arcs
- “that form when…above” is a relative clause that modifies “towering ridges.” Relative clauses are never independent.
By breaking a sentence into parts, it becomes easier to see how the words come together to form phrases and clauses. In this case, since we are able to confirm that everything following “continents” is part of a supplementary phrase, we can confidently say that Choice B is the correct answer.
Dashes
Rule: Use dashes to set off nonessential elements within a sentence. If used as a parenthetical in the middle of a sentence, always be sure to use a pair of dashes, not just one.
Example: My cat—the very creature that once huddled behind a dumpster when I first spotted her—is now a beloved Literary Reference #12: Beloved
by Toni Morrison and cherished member of the family, perhaps even more favored by my parents than me or my siblings.
In the sentence above, the supplementary element “the very creature…her” is separated from the main clause (“My cat is now a beloved and cherished member of the family”) with a set of dashes, which signals the inclusion of nonessential information. As discussed earlier, commas and parentheses function in the same way when there is a nonessential element in the middle of a sentence.
When Punctuation Isn’t Needed On the Digital SAT
Sometimes you may be faced with a “trick” question, where punctuation isn’t required. This is often tested through a select number of specific situations:
Essential Elements
Supplements, which can be either essential or nonessential, are words that provide additional detail or clarity to a sentence. Essential elements should not be separated from the word(s) they modify with any sort of punctuation. On the digital SAT, be on the lookout for relative clauses and appositives, as both can function as either essential or nonessential elements.
Relative Clauses
An essential (or restrictive) relative clause is a type of subordinate clause that provides crucial information about a noun in the main clause. The relative clause “restricts” or narrows down the identity of the noun it modifies, making it clear which specific person, thing, or idea is being referred to. You can generally identify restrictive relative clauses by recognizing relative pronouns such as “that,” “who,” “whom,” “whose,” or in some cases “which.”
Example: The notebook Literary Reference #13: The Notebook
by Nicholas Sparks that is covered in scribbles and doodles is mine.
In this sentence, “that is covered in scribbles and doodles” is an essential relative clause. Without this information, it would be unclear which notebook the speaker is claiming. Imagine that there is a giant pile of notebooks on your teacher’s desk, and your teacher instructs the class to collect their notebooks. If your friend asks you to grab her notebook for her, it would not be helpful for her to just say, “The notebook is mine.” More than likely, you would turn to your friend and say, “That’s not helpful. Which notebook?” Your friend would need to offer specific details if she has any hope of you helping her out. Similarly, in writing, restrictive relative clauses are used to provide clarity, especially when there might be more than one item in question (or in this case, notebook).
Now let’s consider an alternative version:
The notebook, Literary Reference #13: The Notebook
by Nicholas Sparks which is covered in scribbles and doodles, is mine.
In this example, there is an assumption that the identity of the notebook is already evident. To continue our previous scenario, perhaps there is only one notebook in the room, so there is no need to specify. The pair of commas around the relative clause “which is covered in scribbles and doodles” indicates that this detail is not essential to the core meaning of the sentence.
The bottom line? Context matters.
Did you know? Years ago, “that” and “which” used to be interchangeable, but it’s now recommended to reserve “that” for restrictive relative clauses and “which” for nonrestrictive relative clauses. College Board seems to prefer this distinction, as there has yet to be a question that uses “which” for a restrictive relative clause.
Restrictive Appositives
Similar to relative clauses, appositives also help to define the subject in question. They function to rename or explain the noun that is right beside it. Just like with restrictive relative clauses, a restrictive appositive should not have any punctuation separating it from the noun it is modifying.
Example: My friend Rebecca Literary Reference #14: Rebecca
by Daphne du Maurier is coming over for dinner.
Here, “Rebecca” is a restrictive appositive modifying “friend.” Unlike restrictive relative clauses, appositives do not need a relative pronoun. Assuming that you have more than one friend (I hope you do!), you need to clarify the name of your friend. In other words, if you remove the word “Rebecca,” it isn’t clear which friend is coming over for dinner.
Between a Preposition and Its Complement
A prepositional phrase includes a preposition and its complement (which is sometimes referred to as the “object” of the preposition). Punctuation such as commas should not come between a preposition and its complement. They belong together!
Example: As the sun dipped below the horizon, the helmsman guided the ship to the lighthouse, Literary Reference #15: To the Lighthouse
by Virginia Woolf its structure standing proudly as a guiding light for hundreds of years.
We have a number of prepositional phrases here, and none of them have commas separating the preposition from its complement. For example:
- “below the horizon”: the preposition is “below” and its complement is “horizon”
- ”to the lighthouse”: the preposition is “to” and its complement is “lighthouse”
There are even more prepositional phrases in the sentence. Can you find them?
Between a Subject and a Verb
Punctuation is generally unnecessary when the verb immediately follows the subject. Remember, commas are typically used to set off elements that provide additional information, such as introductory phrases, nonessential clauses, or items in a list. The digital SAT may provide a passage that seems trickier because of complicated sentence structures, but as long as you can identify the subject and the main verb, you shouldn’t be misled.
Example (from College Board’s nonadaptive SAT practice test #2):
In crafting her fantasy fiction, Nigerian-born British author Helen Oyeyemi has drawn inspiration from the classic nineteenth-century fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm. Her 2014 novel Boy, Snow, Bird, for instance, is a complex retelling of the story of Snow White, while her 2019 novel _______ offers a delicious twist on the classic tale of Hansel and Gretel.
Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A) Gingerbread—
B) Gingerbread,
C) Gingerbread
D) Gingerbread:
In this sentence, we have the subject, “novel,” followed by a restrictive appositive “Gingerbread,” then followed by the verb “offers.” Do not be distracted by the commas scattered throughout the sentence, like within the book title “Boy, Snow, Bird” or around the nonessential phrase “for instance.” As long as you can pinpoint your subject and verb while also understanding that punctuation shouldn’t separate them, you’ll be unlikely to fall for any of the usual traps.
Closing Thoughts on Digital SAT Boundaries Questions
Boundaries questions test your ability to select the most appropriate punctuation mark in order to either separate or connect phrases and clauses within a sentence. While we’ve covered key rules for period, comma, semicolon, colon, and dash usage, remember that this isn’t an exhaustive list. Rather than attempting to memorize every rule, challenge yourself to break apart sentences and ask yourself: “how does this part function within the sentence?” Developing this understanding will make punctuation conventions a lot more intuitive for you.
Grammar on the Digital SAT: Form, Structure, and Sense
Grammar Sense and SensibilityLiterary Reference #16: Sense and Sensibility
by Jane Austen
As it was clarified earlier, punctuation is not the same as grammar. For Form, Structure, and Sense questions, the focus is less on punctuation and more on usage. This includes assessing a student’s proficiency in areas such as subject-verb agreement, verb conjugations, pronoun-antecedent agreement, subject-modifier placement, and the correct use of plural and possessive forms of nouns.
Subject-Verb Agreement
Just as the name implies, subject-verb agreement refers to both subject and verb “agreeing in number”—that is, if the subject is plural, the verb should be plural.
Subject-verb questions may seem like an elementary-level concept, but as you now know, simple concepts can become convoluted with complicated syntax and other distracting elements within a passage. Like with any digital SAT item, subject-verb questions can range from straightforward to deviously difficult, as we see in the following example (from College Board’s nonadaptive SAT practice test #3):
Bengali author Toru Dutt’s A Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields (1876), a volume of English translations of French poems, _______ scholars’ understanding of the transnational and multilingual contexts in which Dutt lived and worked.
Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A) has enhanced
B) are enhancing
C) have enhanced
D) enhance
The first step is to locate the subject. One way to do this is by turning the statement into a question: what enhanced scholars’ understanding of the transnational and multilingual contexts in which Dutt lived and worked? The book A Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields. The phrase “a volume of English translations of French poems” is functioning as a nonrestrictive appositive, so it does not affect the verb form. Nonrestrictive appositives provide additional information about a noun in a sentence, but they are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. They must be separated from the rest of the sentence with either commas, parentheses, or dashes. Whenever you are faced with a subject-verb agreement question, pay close attention to punctuation—it can provide valuable clues to help you weed out the information that does not influence whether a subject is singular or plural.
Going back to the example above, since we know that A Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields is singular (it is only one book), the verb should be singular as well, making Choice A, “has enhanced,” the correct answer.
Test-Taking Tip: pay attention to patterns with the answer choices. If three out of the four choices are plural, it is extremely likely that the correct answer is the only one that is singular.
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
Ideally, all pronouns have a clear antecedent—it should be obvious what noun the pronoun is referring to. Pronouns exist to avoid redundancy in writing (e.g. “Jane found a ball. Jane kicked the ball. Jane ran after the ball”), but they shouldn’t be used in place of a noun if it results in an ambiguous meaning.
When faced with a pronoun-antecedent question, your task will be to identify, based on the context, the appropriate pronoun for the given antecedent. This means that you will have to recognize if the antecedent is singular or plural. This also means that you will need to determine what type of pronoun is required, such as subject, object, reflexive, or demonstrative.
Example: Caterpillars undergo a remarkable metamorphosisLiterary Reference #17: Metamorphosis
by Franz Kafka process, transforming them from larval forms to visually stunning butterflies in just a matter of weeks.
In the example above, the object pronoun “them” is used because it is the direct object of the action expressed in the participial phrase starting with “transforming.” If, however, we broke up the sentence and decided to still use a pronoun, “them” would need to become “they,” a subject pronoun:
Example: Caterpillars undergo a remarkable metamorphosisLiterary Reference #17: Metamorphosis
by Franz Kafka process. They are transformed from larval forms to visually stunning butterflies in just a matter of weeks.
With this revised version, the pronoun becomes the subject of the sentence, and, adhering to a conventional sentence structure, comes before the main verb (“are”).
Similar to Subject-Verb Agreement questions, you will need to identify whether a subject is singular or plural, as the pronoun needs to agree in number with the antecedent. If the antecedent in question is “caterpillars” (plural), you wouldn’t select “it” (singular) as the subsequent pronoun.
On a final note, Pronoun-Antecedent questions tend to be uncommon, so you shouldn’t expect to see a lot of these.
Verb Forms
You study, I study, he/she/it studies—does this take you back to grade school, or perhaps an early lesson in your Spanish class? Conjugating verbs becomes almost second nature as a native speaker of a language, but there are times when deciding on the correct verb form isn’t so obvious. Many rely on whether a verb “sounds” right, but this is not a foolproof method.
The digital SAT will test your knowledge of verb forms in two ways: verbs that express tense, and verbs that are either finite or nonfinite. If you see that the answer choices contain variations of the same verb, you can assume that you are dealing with a verb forms question.
A Crash Course on Verb Tenses
To begin, we use different tenses to best convey the timing, completion, or duration of events.
Simple tenses (past, present, and future) convey straightforward information about completed actions in the past, ongoing habits in the present, or future events. Simple present is also used to convey statements of fact (“The Arctic woolly bear caterpillar adapts to extreme cold temperatures by producing specialized proteins that act as natural antifreeze”).
Perfect tenses emphasize the completion of actions in relation to other events, indicating whether an action occurred before or after another point in time.
| Past Perfect | Present Perfect | Future Perfect |
|---|---|---|
|
She had completed her assignment before the deadline. |
She has completed her assignment, so she can relax now. |
By tomorrow evening, she will have completed her assignment. |
Past Perfect
She had completed her assignment before the deadline.
Present Perfect
She has completed her assignment, so she can relax now.
Future Perfect
By tomorrow evening, she will have completed her assignment.
Progressive tenses (also known as “continuous” tenses) highlight the duration or continuity of an action, whether it was in progress at a specific moment in the past, is ongoing around the present, or will be occurring at a particular time in the future.
| Past Progressive | Present Progressive | Future Progressive |
|---|---|---|
|
I was celebrating until the phone rang. |
I am celebrating. |
At this time tomorrow, I will be celebrating. |
Past Progressive
I was celebrating until the phone rang.
Present Progressive
I am celebrating.
Future Progressive
At this time tomorrow, I will be celebrating.
The perfect progressive tense combines aspects of both perfect and progressive tenses, emphasizing the ongoing nature of an action leading up to a specific point in time and highlighting its completion at that moment.
| Past Perfect Progressive | Present Perfect Progressive | Future Perfect Progressive |
|---|---|---|
|
She had been working on her project for hours before her friends arrived. |
She has been working on her project all morning, and she is taking a break now.
|
By tomorrow evening, she will have been working on her project for a full 24 hours. |
Past Perfect Progressive
She had been working on her project for hours before her friends arrived.
Present Perfect Progressive
She has been working on her project all morning, and she is taking a break now.
Future Perfect Progressive
By tomorrow evening, she will have been working on her project for a full 24 hours.
The choice between tenses depends on the specific relationship you want to establish between the actions or events in any given sentence. When looking at a digital SAT question, you can often refer to other verbs within the passage as clues, since tenses should generally be consistent (a paragraph written in past tense should remain in past tense). Also look for key words to convey time, such as “today,” “recently,” “before,” “ago,” “eventually,” etc.
Finite and Nonfinite Verb Forms
Finite verbs and nonfinite verbs are terms we use to describe different types of verbs based on their forms and functions in a sentence.
Finite verbs have a specific subject and complete the action of the subject (e.g. “I crumpled the paper and chucked it into the trash can”). Finite verbs change their form based on the tense, person, and number of the subject. Finite verbs are required for all independent clauses.
Nonfinite verbs, on the other hand, do not have a specific subject and do not indicate a complete action or state on their own. These verbs do not change form based on tense, person, or number in the same way as finite verbs. Nonfinite verbs are often used in conjunction with auxiliary (helping) verbs or other elements to form verb phrases.
There are three types of nonfinite verbs: infinitives, gerunds, and participles. How do we know when nonfinite verbs are needed? Let’s go through each of them:
Infinitives
Infinitives are a base form of a verb that are usually preceded by “to” (Hamlet’sLiterary Reference #18: Hamlet
by William Shakespeare iconic “To be or not to be” soliloquy in Act 3, Scene 1 is rife with infinitives).
We often use infinitives in order to convey purpose. Infinitives do not function as verbs (carrying out the action of the sentence), but rather they act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
For example, in the sentence, “She wanted to study abroad,” the main verb is “wanted,” and the direct object (noun) is “to study abroad.” We know that “study” is a verb, yet in this infinitive form, it is acting as a noun.
Gerunds
Speaking of nouns, gerunds are verbs that function as nouns and end in “-ing.” Consider the following sentence: “Chewing loudly is the most annoying habit a person can have.” Here, “chewing” is not acting as a verb but as the subject of the sentence.
At present, College Board has not released any Verb Form questions that include gerunds, but you should still be familiar with their function just in case.
Participles
Participles are verb forms that can function as adjectives and often end in “-ing” or “-ed.” They can be a single word (“running water,” “baked potato”) or, as you may know if you read through the Commas section of this guide, they can be a phrase as well.
On very rare occasions, you may also see modal (conditional) verbs make an appearance on the digital SAT. These include words such as would, could, and should. While these are technically considered finite verbs, the verbs that follow modal verbs are considered nonfinite because they do not change based on tense or number. College Board refers to these words as “nonfinite base forms” of the verb. For example, consider the following sentence:
The proposal would create a comprehensive framework for sustainable urban development.
The modal verb “would” is followed by the nonfinite base form verb “create.” Since “create” is following a modal verb, you would never see it conjugated to any other form, such as “creates,” “created,” etc.
In summary, finite verbs are paired with a specific subject and indicate a complete action or state, while nonfinite verbs lack a specific subject and are often used in combination with other elements to form verb phrases.
Subject-Modifier Placement
For these types of questions, you need to be on the lookout for dangling modifiers. A dangling modifier does not clearly and logically describe the word it’s supposed to due to poor placement. While a modifier can be a word, phrase, or clause, the digital SAT will usually present an introductory phrase or clause that acts as a modifier in the sentence.
When tackling a Subject-Modifier question, you will need to identify the target (subject) of the modifier. Do not be distracted by lengthy answer choices, which shift around words and parts of phrases while trying to communicate the same thing. Instead of focusing on what “sounds good,” find the subject that is being modified, and make sure that it is the word immediately following the modifier. Don’t leave that modifier hanging.
Example:
While passing Literary Reference #19: Passing
by Nella Larsen through the aisles, _______ along with other detritus that marked the end of the school day.
Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A) the teacher spotted crumpled papers and wrappers on the floor,
B) crumpled papers and wrappers were on the floor that the teacher spotted,
C) crumpled papers and wrappers that the teacher spotted were on the floor,
D) on the floor were crumpled papers and wrappers that the teacher spotted,
Now that we are aware of how subject-modifier questions operate, the correct answer should hopefully seem a lot more obvious. The “crumpled papers and wrappers” are not passing through the aisles, the teacher is.
You can often spot a subject-modifier question if you see answer choices that rephrase the same part of a sentence. In identifying the type of question you are working with, you will be far less likely to misidentify the subject.
Plurals, Possessives, and Contractions
Plurals vs. Possessives
Plural nouns and possessive form nouns are two very different things, and yet their usage is often confused. For this reason, they are grouped together into the same testing point.
For these questions, you will be tested on your ability to identify whether a noun should use a singular possessive (e.g. book’s) form, a plural possessive (e.g. books’) form, or no possessive form at all.
The following question is from College Board’s nonadaptive SAT practice test #2:
Inventor John Friedman created a prototype of the first flexible straw by inserting a screw into a paper straw and, using dental floss, binding the straw tightly around the _______ When the floss and screw were removed, the resulting corrugations in the paper allowed the straw to bend easily over the edge of a glass.
Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A) screw’s thread’s.
B) screws’ threads.
C) screw’s threads.
D) screws threads’.
To begin, should the noun “screw” be singular or plural? To determine this, go back to the passage to look for clues. We are told that the first flexible straw was invented by inserting “a” screw into a paper straw, so we know that there is only one screw involved. Therefore, Choice B and Choice D can already be ruled out, because they use a plural form of “screw.”
Next, we need to decide if “thread” should have an apostrophe—in other words, is a possessive form needed? Is something “belonging” to the thread? The answer is no, because based on the context, the word “threads” is only functioning as a plural noun to describe the physical components of the screw. Therefore, we can eliminate Choice A, making Choice C the correct answer.
Possessives vs. Contractions
Alternatively, you may be tested on the difference between contractions and possessive determiners, which are words (adjectives, technically) used to indicate ownership or possession of a noun. In particular, the possessive determiner “its” is often confused with the contraction “it’s,” while the possessive determiner “their” is often confused with the contraction “they’re.”
Consider the following example:
As early as the 16th century, wallpaper was used to accentuate and adorn cupboard interiors in middle-class homes. Yet by the 20th century, _______ presence spread to every room of every home, regardless of one’s class, eventually becoming so overbearingly omnipresent that people began to regard decorative smatterings of flower patterns and fleur-de-lis shapes with disdain.
Which choice completes the text so that it conforms to the conventions of Standard English?
A) it’s
B) its
C) they’re
D) their
There is a lot going on in this passage, but don’t lose focus. First, find the subject—what is the topic of discussion? What has spread to every room and home? The wallpaper. In context, it’s referenced as a single entity (notice how “was” follows “wallpaper,” not “were”), so we can rule out Choice C and Choice D.
Choice A can also be eliminated. “It’s” is a contraction for “it is,” which does not fit the context of the sentence. The main verb in the sentence is “spread,” and the subject is “presence.” The possessive determiner “its” is functioning as an adjective to modify the subject. Therefore, Choice B is the correct answer.
As long as you understand the difference between possessive determiners and their commonly-confused contraction counterparts, these types of questions should be pretty straightforward. You can think of them as a score boosters!
Final Thoughts on Digital SAT Standard English Conventions Questions
Once you are familiar with the grammar and punctuation conventions that are featured within the digital SAT, the questions should feel like easy points. Just as there are obvious “tells” when facing someone in a game of poker, so too are there obvious “tells” when dealing with a Standard English conventions question—certain characteristics that can reveal the exact type of question you are faced with, thereby providing clues to help you approach that question.
By now you should realize that a comma is never accidental, and the ways in which clauses are connected matter. Although it may seem like there is a lot to know, remember that there are only so many rules that apply to these conventions. So as Bilbo Baggins Bonus!
Literary Reference #20:
The Hobbit
by J. R. R. Tolkien once said, “Go forward? Only thing to do! On we go!”
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Amanda Eakin
Amanda is a member of the content team at Test Innovators and specializes in creating reading and writing content for our practice tests. She holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Education, Integrated Language Arts (grades 7-12), and Creative Writing. Before joining Test Innovators, Amanda was an English teacher for several years before transitioning to a learning and development role at a Fortune 500 company. She has come full circle by returning to the education world and is thrilled to help Test Innovators produce high-quality educational content.
